First location of destructive interference: bsinθ=λ
For small angles of θ: θ=bλ
Double slit diffraction
Separation between maximums: s=λdD
Multiple slit diffraction
With N slits, there are N−2 maxima.
Intensity of the central maximum: N2×I0, where I0 is the intensity of the central maximum in single slit diffraction.
Theory
Simple harmonic motion can be modelled by the following equations: xva=Asin(ωt+ϕ)=ω⋅Acos(ωt+ϕ)=−ω2⋅Asin(ωt+ϕ)=−ω2x=−mkx
where:
A: amplitude
ω: angular frequency (how many radians on the graph correspond to 1 second)
ϕ: the leftward phase shift
t: time
x: displacement from equilibrium position.
v: velocity.
a: acceleration.
In addition: vmaxamax=ωA=−ω2A
Velocity and acceleration as a function of displacement
Energy
In an ideal system with no drag forces, energy is conserved: EK+EP=Etotal remains constant.
The total energy of a system can be expressed in terms of the maximum kinetic energy of the system: Etotal=21mvmax2=21mA2ω2
So kinetic and potential energy are: EK=21mv2=21mω2(A2cos2(ωt+ϕ))=21mω2(A2(1−sin2(ωt+ϕ)))=21mω2(A2−x2)EP=Etotal−EK=21mA2ω2−21mω2(A2−x2)=21mω2x2
note that v2=A2cos2(ωt+ϕ) and x2=A2sin2(ωt+ϕ).
Single slit diffraction
For destructive interference, the path difference must be (n+21)λ, and the first minimum is obtained where path difference = 21λ.
With the aid of the diagram, we know that AB is the path difference between the two waves, the slit width is b, and λ is the wavelength: ABpath differenceABAB21λbsinθsinθSince sinθθ=path difference=21λ (for the first minimum)=21λ=2bsinθ (using trignometry)=2bsinθ=λ=bλ≈θ for very small angles:=bλ
So, we can say that the first minimum for a single slit diffraction is observed at an angle θ where θ=bλ.
The formula to find the angle at which additional minima form becomes: bsinθ=nλ
Where:
b : slit width.
n: the nth minima.
λ: wavelength.
We can also conclude that: θ∝λ
As wavelength ↑, θ↑, and the angular width of the central maxima ↑. θ∝b1
As b↑, θ↓, and so the angular width of the central maxima ↓.
Young’s Double Slit Experiment
When light from two slits intefere in the following setup, a set of fringes are formed:
The following conditions are required:
The light from both slits must be coherent, ie, constant or zero phase difference.
The distance of between the slits and the slit width must be negligible compared to the distance between the screen and the slits.
The slit width should be comparable to the wavelength of the light for circular diffraction.
Since D>>d, it can be assumed that the two rays are parallel.
For constructive interference at point P, Δx=nλ, where n=0,1,2,3,4,….
In this case, n=1.
Δx=λ=dsinθ
tanθ=Ds
We can assume tanθ=sinθ because θ is extremely small.
λ=d(tanθ)=Dds
Finally, we can conclude that:
s=dλD
The graph of light intensity vs angle from center for both single and double slit diffraction is as follows:
The intensity of the double slit pattern is modulated by the one-slit pattern.
Multi-slit diffraction
If the number of slits are increased (with the same length between each slit), the fringes are more distinctly pronounced:
For N slits, there are N−2 secondary maxima between two primary maxima.
With an increase in the number of slits to N:
the primary maxima will become thinner and sharper
The N−2 secondary maxima will become unimporant
The intensity of the central maximum is proportional to N2.
Diffraction grating
used in spectroscopy to measure the wavelength of light.
Has rulings, which are slits, which help determine the slit seperation.
x lines/rulings per millimetre corresponds to a x1 slit seperation.
d=x1
Since we know that the condition for constructive interference is dsinθ=nλ, we can use this to calculate the wavelength of light.
Thin-film interference
Upon reflection on a surface with a refractive index greater than the medium a ray is already in, the ray undergoes a phase change of π.
If d is the thickness of the film, the condition for constructive interference, when only one phase change occurs (light is reflected off a medium with a greater refractive index only once): 2dn=(m+21)λ
Where:
d : thickness of the film.
n : refractive index.
m : an integer.
Note: It is similar to the condition for destructive interference (n+21λ), but it is the condition for constructive interference in this case because of the phase shift of π, resulting in crests becoming troughs and troughs becoming crests.
The condition for destructive interference, when only one phase change occurs(light is reflected off a medium with a greater refractive index only once): 2dn=mλ
The condition for constructive interference when there is no or two phase changes (light is reflected off a medium with a greater refractive index twice): 2dn=mλ
The condition for destructive interference when there is no or two phase changes (light is reflected off a medium with a greater refractive index twice): 2dn=(m+21)λ
Resolution
The angular separation of two objects is given by θA=Ds where s is the distance between the objects, and D is the distance between the observer and the objects.
According to the Rayleigh criterion, resolution is possible when the angular separation is greater than the angle fo the first diffraction minimum: θA≥bλ
For a circular slit, the following criteria is used: θA≥1.22bλ
In a diffraction grating
R=Δλλavg=mN
where:
R: resolving power of the grating
λavg: The average of the two wavelengths to be resolved
Δλ: difference in the wavelengths that are to be resolved
m:
Doppler Effect
The doppler effect is the change in the observed frequency of a wave which happens whenever there is relative motion between the source and the observer.
If the wavelength of the light decreases, the source is moving towards the observer, which is called a blueshift.
If the wavelength of the light increases, the source is moving away from the observer, which is called a redshift.
If a source is moving towards an observer with velocity us: λ′=λ(1−vus)f′=f(v−usv)
If an observer is moving towards a source with velocity uo: f′=f(vv+uo)
For light
If the speed of the observer is small compared to the speed of light, then: fΔf≈cvλΔλ≈cv
References
K. A. Tsokos - Physics for the IB Diploma, Sixth Edition